Contribution to Conservation of Landscape and Ecosystem Biodiversity
The proposed Kruger to Canyon Cluster Biosphere Reserve is comprised of a diverse range of landscapes and ecosystems. As previously discussed, this Biosphere Reserve Initiative is composed of four of the fifteen ecosystem types, as listed on the World Network of Biosphere Reserves Map. Like many countries in the world, South Africa has also been exposed to habitat destruction, degradation and fragmentation. It is believed that South Africa has lost 57% of its natural wildlife habitat (Primack, 1993). And it is a well accepted principle, that a decrease in natural habitat can lead to a decrease in species richness and the abundance of certain species, especially larger or migratory (faunal) species that require a greater home range. Primack, (1993) states that only about 6% of South Africa is under protection status (of the state), which falls short of the recommended international (IUCN) figure of 10%. It is against this background that we consider the values of conserving areas within the proposed Kruger to Canyons Biosphere Reserve.
There are a number of Biosphere Reserve Initiatives in the country at present, however there is only one UNESCO proclaimed reserve (The Koegelberg BR in the Western Cape Province) and two nominated Biosphere Reserve (Waterberg and The West Coast BR Initiatives). It is believed that this initiative can contribute valuably to the conservation of South Africa's other landscapes, especially because of the interface between the ecosystems associated with the escarpment and the savanna. It is believed that the conservation of these systems can have economic and ecological benefits to the local and national communities.
The extensive savanna ecosystem found within the Biosphere Reserve, is definitely not a threatened system, and is probably one of the more resilient systems of the country, however because of the size of the area that is protected (by the state and by private landowners), its value to conservation increases. Most of the protected land in this ecosystem is contiguous, with the majority of the fences having been removed. This allows for relatively free movement and migration of animals. This large tract of land is one of the few remaining savanna habitats in South Africa and even the sub continent, which enables such movement of faunal species. This is particularly applicable to the African Wild Dog (Lycaon pictus), Elephant (Loxodonta africana), Blue Wildebeest (Connochetes taurinus) and Burchell's Zebra (Equus burchelli). Considering that so many conservation areas today are isolated and subjected to the McAuther's island biogeography theory, this is acclaim to those with the foresight to form such an area. The savanna ecosystem has more species /ha than other African coutries. The savanna is also economically important to the tourist and game farm industries, and has greater potential for sustainable use of natural resources.
The North-Eastern Mountain Sourveld veld type includes both the grasslands and the forests. The forest subhabitat occuring within the Biosphere Reserve is known as The Transvaal Drakensberg Escarpment Forest. The combination of plants found in this forest is not encountered anywhere else in South Africa. This particular forest system is unique and has evolved because of the rapid rise in altitude from lowveld to escarpment. The indigenous forest type habitat of South Africa (0.25% of S.A. vegetation type) is an essential eco-system and it is threatened with extinction (Kooper, 1985).
The grassland ecosystem, considered to be one of the three most threatened and one of the most inadequately protected systems in South Africa, is protected in small fragmented patches within the Biosphere Reserve. Only small areas of the natural habitat of grasslands remain in South Africa (and only 1% is conserved). This can be attributed to aforestation and clearing of the land for agriculture. The grassland ecosystem has a high number of endemic plant species.
Within the grassland biome, montane seepage wetlands are found. The condition of these catchment wetlands is of the utmost importance, to the quality and quantity of water channeled into the major rivers in the area. Approximately 50% of South Africa's wetlands have been lost due to draining and/or pollution. While the types of wetlands found in the Biosphere area, are not prime examples of wetlands, that is they are not refuge for thousands of birds, they are nevertheless incredibly valuable systems. By protecting the wetlands within this initiative, we are contributing towards the national conservation policy
The 11 perennial rivers that flow through the Biosphere Reserve have varying degrees of conservation status. At some stage, most of the rivers flow through a protected area for at least part of the way. However, because water is one of the most precious resources, these rivers are insufficiently protected. There are projects such as the Olifants River Forum, which help to create awareness and nurture a caring and responsible attitude amongst the communities and industries depending on the water of the Olifants River. The core areas of the Biosphere Reserve certainly contribute towards the conservation of these valuable systems, but unfortunately greater efforts are required.
Within the Biosphere Reserve there are a few unique features in the landscape, namely the Three Rondawels, Mariepskop Mountain, Blyde River Potholes, Wolkberg Caves and the Kadishi Tufa Waterfall. These fall within the core and buffer areas. The underlying value of these features and the general Biosphere Reserve area is the aesthetic value. The spectacular scenery, and diversity there of is not only of economic value in the tourism business, but also meaningful to the psyche of people. It can be very exhilarating to relax and enjoy the beautiful views the area has to offer.
CONSERVATION OF SPECIES BIODIVERSITY
A preliminary species list of the important flora and fauna can be found in the supporting document section. And table:1 can be referred to in part:I for a summary of the species numbers, endemics and red data species. Unfortunately neither this section nor 4.2 have taken the invertebrates into consideration.
The Kruger to Canyons Biosphere Reserve is fortunate to have such a diverse range of habitats falling within protected areas. This contributes to the diversity of species within the area. The different ecosystems compliment each other and as a result there are approximately 149 mammal species, 510 bird species, 147 reptiles, 42 amphibians, 57 fish species and 2 761 plant species. This refers to only the known and recorded species - there are likely to be additional species that have been inadvertently left out and new species (unrecorded) especially amongst the plants and invertebrates.
Mariepskop Mountain noted for the very special and diverse plant communities, which occur on it, it is also the home to 50% of South Africa's butterflies (to be confirmed). Endemic reptiles found only on Mariepskop include-). Mariepskop Dwarf Chameleon (Bradypodion spp. Indet.); and Mariepskop Flat Gecko (Afrodeura sp. indet.) (Those which are known and recorded).
The area conserves a diverse range of mammals, of course the large mammals are the big attractions to foreign visitors - and of these there are many: the African elephant (Loxodonta africana), all of southern Africa's large cats and numerous antelope species. There are all but six of southern Africa's order: Carnivora (35 species) found within the biosphere reserve area. A special species is the Mellers mongoose (Rhynchogale melleri) which is only represented by a drawing in most if not all reference books because of its evasive nature. The Bovidae family is also well represented in the biosphere area, 66% of the southern Africa’s bovidae animals occur in the area, the only ones not present are those species endemic to the Cape, and those species adapted to the arid or swamp environment. The Lichtenstein Hartebeest (Sgmocieros lichtensteinii) was actually considered extinct in South Africa, until Kruger National Park reintroduced a group into the reserve. The group is being carefully monitored. The small mammals are definitely not to be neglected. These small species may be sighted when on trail in one of the core areas. The curious looking shrews can be seen (if one is lucky). Of the Sorcidae family, two of the shrews are southern Africa endemics and the Greater Dwarf Shrew is indeterminate Red Data species. There area has a number of bat species, nine of the microchiroptera being of indeterminate red data species, which indicates how little is known about these animals, and how the biosphere could help co-ordinate projects such as this. There are very few mammalian endemics, Juliana's golden mole (Amblysomus julianae) endemic to the savanna, being the most significant.
All the South African primate species can be seen in the escarpment core areas. The Lesser Bushbaby being the little creature responsible for the frightening scream heard during a night in the bush.
The African Wild dog (Lycaon pictus), another endangered specie, is threatened due to habitat loss and being killed as vermin. The savanna core and buffer areas are one of the few areas in the country that still provide large enough habitats for these magnificent animals. Kruger Park has embarked on a large monitoring program, which involves the help of the general public.
The bird species are also of great interest to the local and international birding fraternity. There are 8 endemics, the Blue Swallow (Hirundo atrocaerulea) , also an endangered specie, is of particular interest. The nests of this breeding migrant are situated predominantly out of core areas, in private forestry land. MONDI Forestry Company have a regular monitoring program in place for these birds. There are 50 red data book species, the peregrine falcon (Falco peregrines) is considered rare, and over the years has been subjected to casual persecution.
Special ‘ticks’ for twitchers incude: White-backed night Heron, the African Finfoot, The 'Big Six' (Lappet-faced vulture; Saddle billed Stork; Martial Eagle; Pels fishing owl; Kori Bustard & Ground Hornbill), the Black rumped button quail, and what is termed as the 'beautiful three' - Knysna and Purple-crested Loeries and the Narina Trogon. All of the Southern African storks can be seen in the Biosphere area, and all but one are red data species (mainly of rare status). The White Stork (Ciconia ciconia) is also a South African endemic. The Cape Vulture (Gyps coprotheres), a vulnerable endemic of South Africa, has a large breeding colony along the escarpment cliffs which has been declared a National Heritage Site. Also worth noting is that all 12 owl species of South Africa are found within the Biosphere Reserve. The most southern distribution of the Taita Falcon (a relatively recent new distribution record) falls well within the Biosphere Reserve area, and can now be seen fairly frequently by experienced birders.
There is very high endeminism noted amongst the reptiles within the Biosphere Reserve (36 species). Special species being the Mariepskop Dwarf Chameleon (Bradypodion spp. Indet.) and the three Rondawels Flat Gecko (Afrodeura sp Indet.), which appear to have been isolated through natural island biogeography. Snakes are not normally the main attraction for visitors, but there is always great curiosity and fear surrounding these reptiles, especially the great venomous snakes of southern Africa, such as the Black mamba (Dendroaspis polylepis) and puffadder (Bitis arietans arietans). The cordylids, or plated lizards are being studied a bit more extensively now, by international herpetologists. Nine of the cordylids in the biosphere area are endemics.
Only 50% of South Africa's frog species are found within the Biosphere Reserve area, but considering that this is a small percentage of the area of South Africa and that it is not exactly prime frog habitat, this is more valuable than one may think. There are 7 endemics and the only red data species is the Golden leaf-folding frog (Afrixalus aureus), which is considered rare.
The Kruger to Canyon Biosphere Reserve Initiative is situated in a unique position. Not only does the initiative include a vast area of savannah where there is a large diversity of large mammals and birds, but it also includes areas of age-old migration routes into the Transvaal Escarpment, which is very rich in plant diversity and endeminism. The escarpment region has the highest concentration of threatened plant species within the four northern provinces of South Africa. The diversity and endeminism on the escarpment can be attributed to the variety of habitats created by the varied topography, wide altitudinal and latitudinal ranges, diverse climatic conditions and the different geological structures. The two main geological formations on the escarpment, and Black Reef Quartzite and Malmani Dolomite, have 78 and 31 endemic plant species respectively (Matthews,1991).
CONSERVATION OF GENETIC BIODIVERSITY
It is always difficult to estimate what the genetic diversity is of animal populations. Generally it is assumed that the diversity is high within the Biosphere Reserve. However two species that may not have very good genetic diversity, are the Blue Wildebeest (Connochaetes taurinus) of the Kruger Park, and the Cheetah (Acinonyx jubutus) population.
The major contributor to economic value in the mammals, is the traditional medicinal trade. A large part of this trade happens illegally, and puts added pressures onto some species such as the Pangolin (Mannis temminckii) and Antbear (Orycteropus afer).
The Sable antelope is considered vulnerable due to loss of preferred habitat and bush encroachment, which changes the preferred habitat of open canopy, and long grass to dense in penetrable thickets. It is also a species that is prized amongst hunters and game viewers alike, which gives the sable an economic value.
The peregrine falcon (Falco peregrines) bird is in demand amongst falconers, who have been known to remove chicks from nests from even protected areas. It is possible that pesticide residues in the eggshell have also contributed to the decline of this bird (as has been noted in the Northern Hemisphere).
The African Rock Python (Python sebae natalensis), considered vulnerable, is in demand in the traditional medicine market and amongst reptile collectors.
Generally frogs are not considered to be of Great economic importance, however they are very important biological indicators because of their sensitivity to toxins in the environment. Institutions involved in bio-monitoring, especially in the aquatic environments, are now looking at using frogs more effectively in monitoring programmes. The African Bullfrog (Pyxicephalus edulis) is one of the few frogs which have an economic value because it is eaten quite extensively by local black tribes when it can be found.
Of the 57 fish species found in the Biosphere Reserve, 32 out of 39 of the important species are of economic importance. Most of the small barbs are valuable aquarium species, while the majority of the larger species are important angling species. The Tigerfish (Hydrocynus vittatus) being the most well known for the vigorous fight which it gives to the angler. Also on the increase in demand, especially amongst fly fishermen, is the Small scale yellowfish (Barbus polylepis ). Mpumalanga Parks Board is busy with a breeding and reintroduction program. This species has declined in its natural habitat, due to competition from exotic species and the deterioration of the condition of the streams. Catch and release angling is promoted. The Treur river Barb (Barbus treurensis) is a vulnerable endemic of the Treur River. The site at which they are found, has also been declared a National Heritage Site.
There are a number of subspecies, which perhaps indicate the diversifying of Species, or special adaptions to the local environment.
Insects are generally discriminated against – and this region is no exception. There are a number of insects, which are considered pests – the malaria carrying mosquito and all the pests associated with agriculture. However despite the many negative associations with the invertebrate communities, there are also a diverse spectrum of valuable species. Many of the farmers and forestry organisations encourage bees and other pollinators to inhabit their properties. There is also a growing trend towards butterfly gardens, and butterfly trails. The aquatic scientists are also very much involved in monitoring the health of aquatic systems with the use of the aquatic macroinvertebrate communities. Mopani worms, the catterpillars of the moth (Gonimbrasia belina), are considered a great delicacy amongst African communities. These catterpillars have an economic value and are also dried for times when there is limited protein available.
Plants are also a valued commodity in the region. Fortunately because of the sub-tropical climatic conditions many of the species are abundant and fast growing. However many of the species are slow growers and are threatened by assorted human practices. The trade for medicinal plants is enormous. There are a number of studies underway trying to investigate the real implications of the trade and the real quantities being sent to Gauteng province in particular.
Marula (Sclerocarya birrea caffra) trees are very popular and valuable trees both to man and animals alike. Humans eat the fruit (which have more vitamin C than oranges) and nuts, use different plant parts for medicinal purposes, relax in their shade and brew marula beer from the fruit. Elephant, baboons and kudu as well as numerous other animals relish the fruit.
